Lifestyle/Medicine

Drugs

ACE inhibitors – or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, are a group of drugs that are used primarily in treatment of hypertension and heart failure

Analgesic – drug used to relieve pain

Anti-emetic drugs – used to treat vomiting and nausea

Anti-muscarinic drugs – block the transmission of impulses along parts of the nervous system. Used to treat Parkinson’s disease

Anti-pruritic drugs – relieve itching

Anti-pyretic drug – reduces temperature or fever

Artesunate – drug used primarily as treatment for malaria

Aspirin – first extracted from bark of willow tree. Felix Hoffmann discovered aspirin in 1899 working for Bayer

Aspirin – an analgesic (pain reliever)

Atropine – produced from Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)

Avandia – diabetes drug that has adverse effects

Azidothymidine (AZT) – or Zidovudine is a type of antiretroviral drug used for the treatment of HIV/AIDS infection

Beta blockers – a class of blood pressure medications that ease the heart's pumping action and widen the blood vessels. Drugs that antagonize the action of adrenaline. Used to treat angina, heart failure, high blood pressure and some abnormal heart rhythms. Developed by James Black

Biosimilar – a biologic medical product which is copy of an original product that is manufactured by a different company, e.g. when the original patent on a drug expires

Bronchodilator drugs – used to treat asthma and bronchitis, by widening the airways to the lungs

Curare – a toxic alkaloid found in certain tropical South American trees that is a powerful relaxant for striated muscles

Diazepam (valium) – launched in 1963 by Hoffman-La Roche

Digitalin – used to treat heart disease. Extracted from foxglove leaves

Diuretic – a drug that elevates the rate of urination

Exenatide (marketed as Byetta) – a drug used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. It is a synthetic version of a hormone found in the saliva of the Gila monster

Herceptin – made by Roche

Heroin (diacetylmorphine) was originally synthesized by Charles Wright in 1874. Felix Hoffmann later synthesized heroin, working for Bayer

Hypoglycaemic drugs – are used to lower levels of glucose in the blood

Ibuprofen – a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) originally marketed as Brufen, and since then under various other trademarks, notably Nurofen and Advil

Leuproreine – drug that reduces testosterone levels, used for ‘chemical castration’

Lipitor – a drug used for the treatment of high cholesterol, triglyceride levels, and prevention of heart attack. Lipitor (Atorvastatin) is a statin made by Pfizer. Best selling drug of all time

Methaqualone (brand name Quaalude) – a sedative-hypnotic drug that acts as a general central nervous system depressant

Morphine – named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. First isolated by Friedrich Serturter in 1804

Neomycin – antibiotic discovered in 1949

Nootropics – also referred to as smart drugs, memory enhancers, cognitive enhancers, and intelligence enhancers, are drugs that improve mental functions

Paracetamol – a widely used analgesic (pain reliever) and antipyretic (fever reducer) e.g. Tylenol. Also known as acetaminophen

Paroxetine or seroxat – an SSRI antidepressant. It was released in 1992 by the GlaxoSmithKline and has since become one of the most prescribed antidepressants on the market due to its apparent efficacy in treating depression as well as a spectrum of anxiety disorders ranging from panic attacks to phobias

Penicillin – inhibits synthesis of cell walls of bacteria

Penicillin discovered in a dish of staphylococcus by Fleming in 1928

Prontosil – the first commercially available antibacterial antibiotic. Developed in 1930s by Bayer

Prozac (Fluoxetine hydrochloride) – an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. Developed by Eli Lilly in 1986

Quinine – an alkaloid extracted from the bark of several species of cinchona as a bitter white crystalline substance. Used to combat malaria

Relenza – used in the treatment of influenza caused by influenza A and B viruses

Ritalin – used to treat ADHD

Rohypnol – date-rape drug

Sartans – drugs that reduce blood pressure

Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitor (SSRI) – used as antidepressants

Statin – a class of drugs that lower cholesterol levels in the blood by inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol in the liver

Streptomycin – an antibiotic drug, the first of a class of drugs called aminoglycosides to be discovered, and was the first antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis

Tamiflu – trade name of Oseltamivir. It was developed by Gilead Sciences and is currently marketed by Hoffmann-La Roche (Roche)

Tetracycline – a broad-spectrum antibiotic produced by the Streptomyces genus of Actinobacteria, indicated for use against many bacterial infections

Thalidomide was developed by German pharmaceutical company Grunenthal. It was sold from 1957 until 1961, when it was withdrawn after being found to be a cause of birth defects

Warfarin – an anticoagulant normally used in the prevention of thrombosis

Zantac – drug commonly used in treatment of peptic ulcer disease and gastroesophageal reflux disease

ZMapp – an experimental biopharmaceutical drug comprising three humanized monoclonal antibodies under development as a treatment for Ebola virus disease

Tropical diseases

African trypanosomiasis – sleeping sickness, is a parasitic disease of people and animals, caused by protists of the species Trypanosoma brucei and transmitted by the tsetse fly

Chagas disease is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. It is spread mostly by insects known as Triatominae or kissing bugs

Cholera – an infection in the small intestine caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The primary treatment is oral rehydration therapy

Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) – acute febrile diseases, found in the tropics, with a geographical spread similar to malaria. Dengue is transmitted to humans by the Aedes aegypii mosquito. Viral disease characterized by extreme pain in the joints and limbs

Ebola – named after a tributary of the Congo river. Originally known as Zaire ebolavirus. Causes a severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans and other mammals

Encephalitis Lethargica – also known as sleeping sickness (though different from the sleeping sickness transmitted by the tsetse fly), is a devastating illness that swept the world in the 1920s and then vanished as quickly as it had appeared. Encephalitis Kwashiorkor – an acute form of childhood protein-energy malnutrition characterized by edema, anorexia, and an enlarged liver

Lethargica attacks the brain, leaving some victims like living statues

Lassa fever – an acute viral hemorrhagic fever first described in 1969 in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria

Leishmaniasis – a disease caused by protozoan parasites and is transmitted by the bite of certain species of sand fly. Visceral leishmaniasis, also known as kala-azar, black fever, and Dumdum fever, is the most severe form of leishmaniasis

Leprosy – also known as Hansen's disease

Malaria – from Anopheles mosquitoes

Onchocerciasis – river blindness. Caused by infection by a nematode. The parasite is transmitted to humans through the bite of a blackfly of the genus Simulium. The larval nematodes spread throughout the body

Plasmodium – parasite that causes maleria

Rift Valley Fever – a viral zoonosis (affects primarily domestic livestock, but can be passed to humans) causing fever. It is spread by the bite of infected mosquitoes. The disease was first reported among livestock in Kenya around 1915, but the virus was not isolated until 1931

Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia) – a parasitic disease caused by several species of fluke of the genus Schistosoma. This disease is most commonly found in Asia, Africa, and South America, especially in areas where the water contains numerous freshwater snails, which may carry the parasite

Viral haemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) – a diverse group of animal and human illnesses that may be caused by five distinct families of RNA viruses

West Nile virus – transmitted by mosquitoes

Yellow fever virus – transmitted by the bite of female mosquitos (the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, and other species)

Eye disorders

Amblyopia – a visual disorder in which the brain partially or wholly ignores input from one eye. Also known as ‘lazy eye’

Blepharitis – inflammation of eyelid

Cataracts – can be caused by microwaves

Charles Bonnet Syndrome – hallucinations caused by macular degeneration

Corneal transplantation – also known as corneal grafting, is a surgical procedure where a damaged or diseased cornea is replaced by donated corneal tissue (the graft) in its entirety (penetrating keratoplasty) or in part (lamellar keratoplasty)

Diplopia – double vision

Heterochromia iridis – different coloured eyes (irises). Alexander the Great had this condition

Hypermetropia – long-sightedness. Corrected by a convex lens

Ishihara test – for red-green colour blindness

Keratitis – inflammation of the cornea

Monogenic diseases – caused by a single gene

Myopia – short-sightedness. Corrected by a concave lens

Nuclear sclerosis – a type of early cataract

Nyctalopia – night-blindness

Pink Eye – conjunctivitis

Presbyopia – inability of the eye to focus sharply on nearby objects, resulting from loss of elasticity of the crystalline lens

Scotoma – a partial loss of vision or blind spot in an otherwise normal visual field

Snelling test – eyesight card

Strabismus – a squint

Trachoma – (Ancient Greek: ‘rough eye’) is an infectious eye disease

Cardiovascular disorders

Anemia – a decrease in number of red blood cells or less than the normal quantity of hemoglobin in the blood

Angina – pain or discomfort due to lack of oxygen to the heart muscle

Angiology – the branch of medical science that studies the blood and lymph vessels and their disorders

Angioplasty – procedure with a balloon-tipped catheter to enlarge a narrowing in a coronary artery

Aortic aneurysm – a general term for any swelling (dilatation or aneurysm) of the aorta, usually representing an underlying weakness in the wall of the aorta at that location

Autologous blood transfusion – uses the patient’s own blood

Coronary artery bypass surgery – also coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery is performed to relieve angina and reduce the risk of death from coronary artery disease

Electrocardiograph – medical instrument that records electric currents associated with contractions of the heart

Neutrophils – the primary white blood cells that respond to a bacterial infection

Phlebitis – inflammation of the wall of a vein

Phlebotomist – a person who draws blood from a patient

Phlebotomy – modern term for bloodletting

Renfield Syndrome – a term used to describe an obsession to drink blood. Also known as clinical vampirism

Sphygmomanometer – blood pressure meter

Tetralogy of Fallot – a congenital heart defect which classically has four anatomical components. It is the most common cause of blue baby syndrome. Named after French physician Etienne Fallot

Thrombolytic drugs – dissolve blood clots

Thrombus – blood clot

Vascular occlusion – a sudden blockage of a blood vessel, usually with a clot

Genetic disorders

Achondroplasia – common cause of dwarfism. May be inherited as a genetic disorder

Autosomal dominant disorder – e.g. Marfan disease

Autosomal recessive disorder – affect one in four children if each parent is an unaffected carrier, e.g. sickle-cell anaemia

BRCA1 – gene that produces a protein called breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein

Colour blindness – more common in boys than girls because the recessive allele is carried on the X chromosome

Down’s Syndrome – trisomy 21 (a third copy of chromosome 21)

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy – a severe recessive X-linked form of muscular dystrophy. In general, only males are affected, though females can be carriers

Edward’s syndrome – trisomy 18

Gene therapy – the use of DNA as a pharmaceutical agent to treat disease. It derives its name from the idea that DNA can be used to supplement or alter genes within an individual's cells

Haemophilia – is more common in boys than girls because the mutant allele is carried on the X chromosome. Haemophilia is rare in women but they may be carriers. Haemophilia A (clotting factor VIII deficiency) is the most common form of the disorder. Haemophilia B is sometimes called Christmas disease, named after Stephen Christmas, the first patient described with this disease

Huntington’s chorea – a neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and leads to cognitive decline and dementia. The first thorough description of the disease was by George Huntington in 1872

Klinefelter’s syndrome – male has additional X chromosome, i.e. XXY

Mandibular prognathism – a potentially disfiguring genetic disorder where the lower jaw outgrows the upper, resulting in an extended chin. This condition is colloquially known as Habsburg jaw or Habsburg lip

Patau syndrome – trisomy 13

Personal Genome Project (PGP) – aims to publish the complete genomes and medical records of several volunteers, in order to enable research into personalized medicine. It was initiated by Harvard University's George Church and announced in 2006

Phenylketonuria (PKU) – an autosomal recessive metabolic genetic disorder characterized by a mutation in the gene for the hepatic enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, rendering it nonfunctional

Polygenic – genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial, or polygenic, meaning that they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyle and environmental factors

Prader-Willi syndrome – chromosomal disorder that causes a compulsion to eat constantly

Progeria – genetic disease where children start to age very rapidly

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) – also known as ‘bubble boy’ disease, is a genetic disorder

Sickle-cell anaemia – caused by haemoglobin becoming insoluble. A life-long blood disorder characterized by red blood cells that assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape. Sickle-cell conditions have an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance from parents

Thalassemia – an inherited form of anemia caused by faulty synthesis of haemoglobin

Triple marker test – screens for Down’s Syndrome

Triple-X syndrome (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and are often shy

Turner syndrome – (X chromosome instead of XX or XY)

Cancer

Carcinoma – the most common type of cancer occurring in humans. A cancer that begins in a tissue that lines the inner or outer surfaces of the body, and that generally arises from cells originating in the endodermal or ectodermal germ layer during embryogenesis

Hodgkin's lymphoma – previously known as Hodgkin's disease, is a type of lymphoma, which is a cancer originating from white blood cells called lymphocytes. It was named after Thomas Hodgkin, who first described abnormalities in the lymph system in 1832

Metastatis – the movement or spreading of cancer cells from one organ or tissue to another

Neoplasm – an abnormal mass of tissue as a result of abnormal growth or division of cells

Neuroblastoma – the most common extracranial solid cancer in childhood and the most common cancer in infancy

Sarcoma – a malignant tumour of connective or other non-epithelial tissue

Tumour – a neoplasm that has formed a lump

Sexually transmitted diseases

Chlamydia infection – one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide; it is estimated that about 1 million individuals in the United States are infected with Chlamydia

Gonorrhoea – was known as ‘the clap’

Syphilis – caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum. Syphilis may have been carried to Europe by the returning crewmen from Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas

Vitamin deficiencies

Vitamin A – retinol (carotene). Night blindness

Vitamin B1 – thiamin. Beri-beri

Vitamin B2 – riboflavin. Skin disorders, failure to thrive

Vitamin B3 – niacin. Gastro-intestinal problems

Vitamin B6 – pyridoxine. Dermatitis

Vitamin B9 – folic acid. Congenital malformations

Vitamin B12 – cobalamin. Contains cobalt. Pernicious anemia

Vitamin C – ascorbic acid. Scurvy

Vitamin D – cholecalciferol. Rickets. Vitamin D deficiency can be caused by lack of sunlight

Vitamin E – refers to a group of ten lipid-soluble compounds that include both tocopherols and tocotrienols. Impaired fat absorption

Vitamin K – phytomenadione. Haemorrhagic problems. Required for blood coagulation

Mineral deficiencies

Calcium – rickets

Chromium – diabetes

Copper – anaemia

Iodine – goitre

Iron – anaemia

Magnesium – muscle weakness and fatigue

Phosphorus – bone pain

Potassium – kidney and lung failure

Sodium – impaired acid-base balance

Zinc – loss of appetite and malnutrition

Hypokalemia – low concentration of potassium in the blood

Hyponatraemia – an electrolyte disturbance in humans that exists when the sodium concentration in the plasma falls below a critical level. At lower levels water intoxication may result

Viruses

Baltimore classification (first defined in 1971) is a classification system that places viruses into one of seven groups

Adenovirus – responsible for respiratory infections

Arbovirus – a group of viruses that are transmitted by arthropod vectors

Human papillomavirus (HPV) – a member of the papillomavirus family of viruses that is capable of infecting humans. More than 30 to 40 types of HPV are typically transmitted through sexual contact

Lentivirus – a genus of viruses of the Retroviridae family, characterized by a long incubation period

Retroviridae is a family of viruses that replicate in a host cell through the process of reverse transcription

Rhinovirus – causative agent of the common cold

Luc Montagnier identified the HIV virus in 1983

Robert Gallo is best known for his role in identifying the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) as the infectious agent responsible for the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

AIDS virus identified by Michael Gottlieb in 1981

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1, also known as bird flu or H5N1, is a subtype of the influenza A virus which can cause illness in humans and many other animal species

H5 stands for the the fifth of several known types of the protein hemagglutinin

N1 stands for the the first of several known types of the protein neuraminidase

H1N1 – Spanish flu

H1N1 – Swine flu

H2N2 – Asian flu

H3N2 – Hong Kong flu

Grippe – old term for influenza

Chicken pox – caused by primary infection with varicella zoster virus

Hepatitis – inflammation of the liver. A group of viruses known as the hepatitis viruses cause most cases of hepatitis

Infectious mononucleosis – glandular fever. caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), one type of herpes virus. Glandular fever was known as ‘the kissing disease’

Poliomyelitis – often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute, viral, infectious disease. Poliomyelitis was first recognized as a distinct condition by Jakob Heine in 1840. Its causative agent, poliovirus, was identified in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) is the virus that causes COVID-19. It is the successor to SARS-CoV-1, the virus that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak

Smallpox – an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor

Last European smallpox outbreak was in Yugoslavia in 1972

The last naturally occurring case of indigenous smallpox (Variola minor) was diagnosed in Ali Maow Maalin, a hospital cook in Merca, Somalia, in 1977

Janet Parker was a British medical photographer, and is the last person known to have died from smallpox, in 1978

After vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the eradication of smallpox in 1979.  Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest, which was declared eradicated in 2011

Verucca (plantar wart) – caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV)

Herpes labialis (cold sores) – caused by a virus

Vaccines

Vaccine – a preparation of a weakened or killed pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus, or of a portion of the pathogen's structure that upon administration stimulates antibody production or cellular immunity against the pathogen but is incapable of causing severe infection

Oral polio vaccine – developed by Eric Sabin. Live vaccine, superseded Salk’s injected killed vaccine

Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux developed the first rabies vaccination in 1885. This vaccine was first used on nine-year-old Joseph Meister

Jonas Salk worked on a vaccine for influenza

Louis Pasteur demonstrated a vaccine for anthrax

DPT – (also DTP) a mixture of three vaccines, to immunize against diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough) and tetanus

Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine (Hib vaccine or PRP vaccine) was developed for the prevention of invasive disease caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b bacteria and has led to reduced cases of meningitis

Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) – a vaccine against tuberculosis

MMR – an immunization vaccine against measles, mumps, and rubella

Lady Mary Wortley Monagu was instrumental in bringing vaccination to GB in 1718, after seeing variolation (inoculation as a method of purposefully infecting a person with smallpox (Variola) in a controlled manner so as to minimise the severity of the infection and also to induce immunity against further infection) in Istanbul

In 1796, Edward Jenner innoculated James Phipps, a young boy, with material from the cowpox blisters of the hand of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom, to prove that infection with cowpox gave immunity to smallpox

Alternative medicine

Homeopathy – first defined by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century. Homeopathic practitioners maintain that an ill person can be treated using a substance that can produce, in a healthy person, symptoms similar to those of the illness

Iridology – an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors, and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones which they correspond to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as ‘windows’ into the body's state of health

Reflexology – based on the idea that there are energy channels in the feet that relate to every organ and function of the body. It involving application of pressure to the feet and hands with specific thumb, finger, and hand techniques without the use of oil or lotion

Stylostixis – type of acupuncture

Imaging techniques

Computed tomography (CT) – a medical imaging method employing tomography created by computer processing. Digital geometry processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. Older and less preferred terms that also refer to X-ray CT are computed axial tomography (CAT scan) and computer-aided/assisted tomography

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – uses a powerful magnetic field to align the nuclear magnetization of (usually) hydrogen atoms in water in the body. Also known as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), or magnetic resonance tomography (MRT). MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to form images of the body

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) – a type of specialized MRI scan used to measure the hemodynamic response (change in blood flow) related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord

Positron emission tomography (PET) – a nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule

Other diseases, disorders and syndromes

Addison’s disease – a rare, chronic endocrine disorder in which the adrenal glands do not produce sufficient steroid hormones (glucocorticoids and often mineralocorticoids)

Albinism – inherited disorder caused by lack of melanin

Alice in Wonderland syndrome (AIWS) – describes a set of symptoms which include

alteration of body image (feeling that parts of the body are the wrong size)

Alien Hand Syndrome (AHS) – being unable to control a rogue hand. Suffered by Dr Strangelove

Ankylosing spondylitus – chronic inflammatory disease of the spine

Anthrax – was known as ragpicker’s disease

Asthma – a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm

Autoimmune diseases – arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. In other words, the body actually attacks its own cells, e.g. type 1 diabetes

Anaphylaxis – an acute multi-system severe type I hypersensitivity allergic reaction

Aphasia – inability to use or understand language (spoken or written) because of a brain lesion. Most commonly caused by stroke

Appendicitis – deep tenderness at McBurney's point, known as McBurney's sign, is a sign of acute appendicitis

Asperger's syndrome – a form of autism which often manifests in eccentric behavior rather than pronounced and obvious disability

Bell’s Palsy – paralysis of the face

Black lung – coalworker's pneumoconiosis

Bipolar disorder – manic depression. Treated with lithium

Botulism – an illness caused by a potent bacterial toxin/poison (produced by Clostridium botulinum) which causes muscle weakness or paralysis

Bright’s disease – nephritis. Marked by the presence of albumin in the urine

Brown-Sequard syndrome – a loss of sensation and motor function (paralysis and anesthesia) that is caused by the lateral hemisection (cutting) of the spinal cord

Bubo – swelling of the lymph nodes. It is found in infections such as bubonic plague, gonorrhea, tuberculosis or syphilis. It is similar in appearance to a huge blister, and usually appears under the armpit, in the groin or on the neck

Bursitis – inflammation of one or more bursae, or small sacs of synovial fluid, in the body

Candidiasis or thrush – a fungal infection (mycosis) of any of the Candida species (all yeasts), of which Candida albicans is the most common

Catalepsy – a nervous condition characterized by muscular rigidity and fixity of posture regardless of external stimuli, as well as decreased sensitivity to pain

Cheilitis – a medical condition involving inflammation of the lip

Chilblains – acral ulcers (that is, ulcers affecting the extremities) that occur when a predisposed individual is exposed to cold and humidity

Cholecystitis – inflammation of the gall bladder

Chronic fatigue syndrome – also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME)

Coeliac disease – an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine. The only effective treatment is a life-long gluten-free diet

Crohn’s disease – an inflammatory disease of the intestines that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract

Colic – a form of pain which starts and stops abruptly

Baby colic – a condition in which an otherwise healthy baby cries or screams frequently and, for extended periods, without any discernible reason

Painter’s colic – lead poisoning

Colitis – inflammation of the colon

Costochondritis – chest wall pain

Cyanosis – a bluish coloration of the skin due to the presence of deoxygenated haemoglobin in blood vessels near the skin surface

Cystic fibrosis – also known as mucoviscidosis, is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that affects most critically the lungs, and also the pancreas, liver, and intestine. It is characterized by abnormal transport of chloride and sodium across an epithelium, leading to thick, viscous secretions

Dementia pugilistica – a type of neurodegenerative disease or dementia, which may affect amateur or professional boxers as well as athletes in other sports who suffer concussions. It is also called punch-drunk syndrome

Dermatophytosis – fungal infection commonly known as ringworm

In 1776 Matthew Dobson evaporated two quarts of urine from a patient with diabetes. The resulting residue is granulated and smells and tastes like sugar, conclusively establishing the presence of ‘saccharine materials’ as a diagnosis of diabetes

Diprosopus – a rare congenital disorder whereby part or all of the face is duplicated on the head. Cats with the condition are known as 'Janus cats', after the Roman god

Diptheria – in 10% of cases, patients experience neck swelling, informally referred to as ‘bull neck’. Schick test – for diphtheria

Dysentery (formerly known as Flux or the bloody flux) is an inflammatory disorder of the intestine, especially of the colon

Edema or oedema – (from the Greek for ‘swelling’), formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin or in one or more cavities of the body

Endometriosis – a medical condition in women in which endometrial like cells appear and flourish in areas outside the uterine cavity

Epilepsy – known as ‘falling sickness’

Ergotism – the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus which infects rye and other cereals. Ergotism is also known as ‘St Anthony’s fire’

Gangrene – death of body tissue due to lack of oxygen, caused by lack of blood supply

Goitre – enlarged thyroid gland caused by iodine deficiency

Graves' disease – an autoimmune disease where the thyroid is overactive, producing an excessive amount of thyroid hormones

Hernia – protrusion of an abdominal organ through a gap in the abdominal wall

Hiatus hernia – the protrusion (or herniation) of the upper part of the stomach into the thorax through a tear or weakness in the diaphragm

Herpes zoster – shingles

Hypophysitis – inflammation of the pituitary gland

Impetigo – skin infection

Impulse control disorder – a set of brain disorders including intermittent explosive disorder (hot-headedness), kleptomania (stealing), pathological gambling, pyromania (fire-starting) and trichotillomania (pulling one's hair out). Impulsivity, the key feature of these disorders, can be thought of as seeking a small, short term gain at the expense of a large, long term loss

Interstitial cystitis – bladder pain syndrome

Infantile paralysis – polio

Infectious parotitis – mumps

King’s evil – scrofula (tuberculosis of the lymph glands), supposedly cured by the touch of a king

Kleine-Levin Syndrome – (also known as Sleeping Beauty Syndrome) is a neurological disorder characterized by recurring periods of excessive amounts of sleep and altered behaviour

Klippel-Feil syndrome – distinctive ‘no neck’ look, suffered by Gladstone Small

Koplik spots – a prodrome (early symptom) of measles. White lesions in the mouth

Koro – a culture-specific syndrome in which an individual has an overpowering belief that his or her genitals (e.g., penis or female nipples) are retracting and will disappear

Labyrinthitis – an inflammation of the inner ear

Legionellosis – takes two distinct forms: Legionnaires' disease is the more severe form of the infection and produces pneumonia; Pontiac fever is caused by the same bacterium but produces a milder respiratory illness without pneumonia that resembles acute influenza. Legionnaires' disease acquired its name in 1976 when an outbreak of pneumonia occurred among people attending a convention of the American Legion in Philadelphia

Leucism – a condition characterized by reduced pigmentation in animals and humans. Unlike albinism, it is caused by a reduction in all types of skin pigment, not just melanin

Leukodystrophy – a group of disorders characterized by dysfunction of the white matter of the brain. The leukodystrophies are caused by imperfect growth or development of the myelin sheath

Lyme disease – tick-borne disease named after the town of Lyme, Connecticut, where a number of cases were identified in 1975

Mad hatter disease – caused by absorption of mercury

Myelitis – inflammation of white matter or gray matter of spinal cord

Myositis – inflammation of the muscles

Myxoedema – a term used synonymously with severe hypothyroidism

Osteomyelitis – inflammation of the bone marrow and adjacent bone

Osteoporosis – a decrease in bone mass and bone density and an increased risk and/or incidence of fracture

Otitis – inflammation of the ear

Paget's disease – a metabolic bone disease that involves bone destruction

Paronychia – bacterial or fungal hand infection or foot infection where the nail and skin meet at the side or the base of a finger or toenail

Pelegra – a disease caused by deficiency of niacin

Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum, the thin tissue that lines the inner wall of the abdomen and covers most of the abdominal organs

Pertussis – whooping cough

Pes planus – flat feet or fallen arches

Phocomelia – a rare congenital disorder involving the limbs. Suffered by Alison Lapper

Pick’s disease – a rare neurodegenerative disease that causes progressive destruction of nerve cells in the brain

Pleursey – inflammation of the pleura, the linings surrounding the lungs

Porphyrias – a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain enzymes in the heme bio-synthetic pathway

Posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) – also called Benson's syndrome, is most usually considered to be an atypical variant of Alzheimer's disease

Pott’s disease – affects the spine

Proteus Syndrome – a congenital disorder that causes skin overgrowth and atypical bone development, often accompanied by tumors on over half the body. Suffered by the Elephant Man (Joseph Merrick), who was saved by the surgeon Frederick Treves

Psittacosis – infectious disease transmitted to humans from birds

Quinsy – or peritonsillar abscess, is a recognized complication of tonsillitis

Rapunzel syndrome – a rare intestinal condition in humans resulting from ingesting hair (trichophagia). Trichophagia is sometimes associated with the hair-pulling disorder trichotillomania

Raynaud's phenomenon – a disorder causing discoloration of the fingers, toes, and occasionally other areas

Rosacea – skin disease of adults (more often women) in which blood vessels of the face enlarge resulting in a flushed appearance

Rubella – German measles

Rubeola – measles

Scabies – a contagious skin infection that occurs among humans and other animals. It is caused by a tiny and usually not directly visible parasite – the mite Sarcoptes scabiei

Sialadenitis – inflammation of a salivary gland

Spondylitis – inflammation of a vertebra

Stroke – sometimes referred to as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), cerebrovascular insult (CVI), or colloquially brain attack is the loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain, especially when it occurs quickly. Two types – Haemorrhagic stroke – caused by the rupture of a blood vessel in the brain; Ischaemic stroke – caused by an interruption in the flow of blood to the brain (as from a clot blocking a blood vessel)

Stomatitis – an inflammation of the mucous lining of any of the structures in the mouth

Sydenham's chorea (also known as Saint Vitus’s Dance) – a disease characterized by rapid, uncoordinated jerking movements affecting primarily the face, feet and hands

Tetanus – characterized by a prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibres. The primary symptoms are caused by tetanospasmin, a neurotoxin produced by the Gram-positive bacterium Clostridium tetani

Toxoplasmosis – a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) – also known as prion diseases, are a group of progressive conditions that affect the brain and nervous system of many animals, including humans. Includes BSE and CJD

Trombiculosis – a rash caused by trombiculid mites which is often referred to as a chigger bite

Tuberculosis– TB (short for tubercles bacillus) is a common and often deadly infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria. Mantoux test – used to detect latent tuberculosis infection

Typhus – was known as ‘jail fever’. Caused by Rickettsiae bacteria

Urticaria – (or hives) is a kind of skin rash notable for pale red, raised, itchy bumps. Also known as nettle rash

Vitiligo – condition that causes depigmentation of parts of the skin

Weil’s disease – transmitted by rats. Known as leptospirosis

Whitlow – (or felon) is an infection of the tip of the finger

Glossary

Apgar score – devised in 1952 by Dr. Virginia Apgar as a simple and repeatable method to quickly and summarily assess the health of newborn children immediately after childbirth. The Apgar score is determined by evaluating the newborn baby on five simple criteria on a scale from zero to two, then summing up the five values thus obtained. The resulting Apgar score ranges from zero to 10. The five criteria (Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration) are used as a mnemonic

Aguesia – loss of sense of taste

Analgesia – the absence of the sense of pain while remaining conscious

Anosmia – loss of sense of smell

Anoxia – deficiency of oxygen. Same as hypoxia

Arthroscopy – examination of the interior of a joint, such as the knee, using a type of endoscope that is inserted into the joint

Balneotherapy – the treatment of disease by bathing

Bariatrics – deals with the causes, prevention, and treatment of obesity

Barium meal – a procedure in which radiographs of the oesophagus, stomach and duodenum are taken after barium sulfate is ingested by a patient

BMI (Body Mass Index) – defined as the individual's body weight divided by the square of their height. A BMI below 15 may indicate the person has an eating disorder; a number above 30 suggests the person is obese

Borborygmus – tummy rumbling

Bruxism – grinding of the teeth

Cellulite – herniation of subcutaneous fat within fibrous connective tissue that manifests itself as skin dimpling

Cerumen – earwax

Cholecystectomy – removal of the gall bladder

Claudication – limping

Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS) – refers to a person who looks like a woman but who has undescended testes and no ovaries

Compound fracture – occurs when the edges of a broken bone puncture the skin

Congenital disorder – involves defects in or damage to a developing foetus, e.g. cleft lip and palate, sirenomelia (mermaid syndrome)

Contagious disease – one that can be passed only through direct contact

Decompression sickness – also known as the bends, or caisson disease

Deglutition – swallowing

Dental caries – tooth decay

Dialysate – the part of a mixture which passes through the membrane in dialysis

Peritoneal dialysis – uses the patient's peritoneum as a membrane across which fluids and dissolved substances are exchanged from the blood

Diaphoresis – excessive sweating

Diaphoretic – the state of perspiring profusely

Dolorimeter – an instrument used to measure pain threshold and pain tolerance

Dupuytren’s contracture – a fixed flexion contracture of the hand where the fingers bend towards the palm and cannot be fully extended

Dysphagia – difficulty in swallowing

Dysphemia – stuttering or stammering

Electromyography – study of electric currents set up in muscle fibres by bodily movement

Emetic – a medicine that induces nausea and vomiting

Epidemiology – deals with the study of the causes, distribution, and control of disease in populations

Epigastric sensation – sinking feeling in pit of stomach, due to nerves

Epinephrine autoinjector – a device for injecting a measured dose or doses of epinephrine (adrenaline)

Epistaxis – nose bleed

Etiology – the study of the causes of disease

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) – a technique of providing both cardiac and respiratory support oxygen to patients whose heart and lungs are so severely diseased or damaged that they can no longer serve their function

Fallen arches – flat feet

Fractures – closed (simple) fractures are those in which the skin is intact, while open (compound) fractures involve wounds that communicate with the fracture

Frozen shoulder – medically referred to as adhesive capsulitis, is a disorder in which the shoulder capsule, the connective tissue surrounding the glenohumeral joint of the shoulder, becomes inflamed and stiff

Genu valgum – commonly called ‘knock-knee’, is a condition where the knees angle in and touch one another when the legs are straightened

Globus hystericus – lump in the throat

Glossitis – inflammation of the tongue

Glossoplegia – paralysis of the tongue

Gram staining (or Gram's method) – an empirical method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups (Gram-positive and Gram-negative) based on the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls. A gram-positive results in a purple-blue colour while a gram-negative results in a pink-red colour

Gravidity – the number of times a woman has been pregnant

Gynecomastia – the development of abnormally large mammary glands in males resulting in breast enlargement

Haemodialysis – dialysis using a machine

Haemolytic disease of the Newborn – if a mother is RH^- and the father is RH⁺, the mother’s immune system may react against the foetus’s blood cells and destroy them because they seem foreign

Hallux vulgus – bunion, a deformity characterized by lateral deviation of the big toe

Halothane – an inhalant general anesthetic

Hammer toe – a deformity of the middle joint of the second, third, or fourth toe causing it to be permanently bent, resembling a hammer

Heimlich Manoeuvre – a method of abdominal thrusts, is a first aid procedure for clearing an obstructed airway

Hemicrania – migraine

Hepadectomy – removal of the liver

Hirudotherapy – the use of leeches in medicine

Histamine – a biologically active substance released from mast cells during an allergic reaction in response to an allergen. Antihistamines can be used to block the release of histamine that would otherwise occur as a result of exposure to an allergen

Horripilation – reflex erection of hairs of the skin in response to cold or emotional stress or skin irritation (goose pimples)

Hyperhydrosis – excessive sweating

Hypertension – high blood pressure

Hyperthymesia – a condition in which the individual possesses a superior autobiographical memory, meaning they can recall the vast majority of personal experiences and events in their lives

Hypopnea – episode of decreased rate and depth of breathing

Iatrogenesis – an inadvertent adverse effect or complication resulting from medical treatment or advice

Ice-cream headache, also known as sphenopalatine ganglioneuralgia, is a form of brief headache commonly associated with consumption (particularly quick consumption) of cold beverages or foods such as ice cream

Idiot savant – an intellectually disabled person who exhibits extraordinary ability in a highly specialized area

Index case – first case of a disease

Infection – invasion by and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms

Insolation, thermopligia – sun stroke

Kyphosis – excessive curvature of the upper spine

Laminectomy is a spine operation to remove the portion of the vertebral bone called the lamina

Laparoscope – a slender endoscope inserted through an incision in the abdominal wall in order to examine the abdominal organs or to perform minor surgery

Lateral epicondylitis – tennis elbow

Lordosis – inward curvature of the spine

Magic bullet – a concept of selectively targeting a bacterium without affecting other organisms, most associated with Dr. Paul Ehrlich and syphilis research

Median lethal dose, LD₅₀ (abbreviation for ‘lethal dose, 50%’) – the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration

Melanocytic nevus – a mole

Mentoplasty – alters the jaw line or cheek

Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) – a bacterium

Methicillin sensitive staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) – a bacterium

Moro reflex – also known as the startle reflex, is one of the infantile reflexes

Mycetism – mushroom poisoning

Mycosis – a condition in which fungi pass the resistance barriers of the human or animal body and establish infections

Neurosclerosis – hardening of nerve tissue

Neurosis – a class of functional mental disorders involving distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations

New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase (NDM-1) – an enzyme that makes bacteria resistant to a broad range of antibiotics. Superbug brought into UK from India

Nosocomial infections – infections picked up in hospitals

Nosology – a branch of medicine that deals with classification of diseases

Onychocryptosis – ingrown toenail

Oophorectomy – the surgical removal of an ovary or ovaries

Otology – study of hearing

Otorhinolaryngology – diseases of the ear, nose and throat

Palliative medicine – treatment that provides symptomatic relief but not a cure

Pap test – cervical smear, named after the Greek doctor Georgios Papanikolaou

Paresthesia – pins and needles

Pathogen – an agent that causes disease, especially a living microorganism such as a bacterium or fungus

Pica – an appetite for substances largely non-nutritive, such as clay, chalk, dirt, or sand

Plexos – rubber hammer used to test reflexes on knee

Polydactylism – a congenital physical anomaly in humans, dogs, and cats having more than the normal number of fingers or toes

Prophylaxis – preventive medicine

Potts fracture – ankle

Pre-eclampsia – a medical condition where hypertension arises in pregnancy in association with significant protein in the urine

Prepatella versitis – housemaid’s knee

Priapism – condition in which the penis is continually erect; usually painful and seldom with sexual arousal

Pruritus – itching

Pyrosis – heartburn

Refractory illness – does not respond to treatment

Rhytidectomy – a facelift

Salmonella – named after Daniel Elmer Salmon, an American veterinary pathologist

Schizophrenia – coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908

Scrivener's palsy – writer’s cramp. Also known as graphospasm

Situs inversus – body organs on the wrong side

Stasis – a state in which the normal flow of a body liquid stops

Static aponea – holding your breath

Stent – an artificial 'tube' inserted into a natural passage/conduit in the body to prevent, or counteract, a disease-induced, localized flow constriction. Named after an English dentist

Sternutation – sneezing

Suture – a medical device used to hold body tissues together after an injury or surgery. Application generally involves of using a needle with an attached length of thread

Sweat test – measures the concentration of chloride that is excreted in sweat. It is used to diagnose cystic fibrosis

Synalgia – referred pain, also called reflective pain, is pain perceived at a location other than the site of the painful stimulus

Syncope – fainting

Trismus – lockjaw

Vasectomy – the male vasa deferentia are severed and then tied/sealed

Vector – any agent (person, animal or microorganism) that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism

Viral infection types – A (causes epidemics), B (common in humans), C (found in pigs, dogs and humans)

Visual agnosia – the inability of the brain to make sense of or make use of some part of otherwise normal visual stimulus and is typified by the inability to recognize familiar objects or faces

Zoonoses – diseases caught from animals

Veterinary medicine

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) affects cats worldwide

Lime disease – carried by ticks, affects deer

Newcastle disease is an RNA virus which affects poultry

Schmallenberg virus causes congenital malformations and stillbirths in cattle, sheep, and goats. It appears to be transmitted by midges

Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) – a virus found in primates related to HIV

Spondylosis Deformans – affects the spine, primarily found in dogs

Strangles – lymph node disease affecting horses and ponies. Equine distemper

Sweeny – wasting disease affecting horses