Art and Culture/British - 1066 to 1485
Normans
William the Conqueror was crowned King William I on Christmas Day, 1066
The Harrying (or Harrowing) of the North was a series of campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate Northern England, and is part of the Norman conquest.
Odo, Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux, was the half-brother of William the Conqueror, and was, for a time, second in power after the King of England. He may have commissioned the Bayeux Tapestry.
Hereward the Wake led resistance against Normans on Isle of Ely in 1071.
Domesday Book – created for tax purposes, in 1086.
Scotland: Malcolm III of Scotland killed at Battle of Alnwick in 1093.
Wales: Gerald de Windsor, also known as Gerald FitzWalter, was the nobleman in charge of the Norman forces in Wales in the late 11th century. Notably, he was the progenitor of the FitzGerald dynasty. Gerald married the Welsh Princess Nest of Deheubarth.
Geoffrey of Monmouth (c.1100 – c.1155) was a clergyman and one of the major figures in the development of British history and the popularity of tales of King Arthur.
William I died at Rouen on9 September 1087.
He was succeeded by his eldest son Robert Curthose as Duke of Normandy and by William II “Rufus” as King of England (1087-1100).
William II was unpopular and killed in August 1100 whilst hunting in the New Forest. He was succeeded by his younger brother Henry I (1100-1135).
Henry defeated his brother Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106. Robert was captured and imprisoned first in Devizes Castle and later in Cardiff Castle.
White Ship sank in the English Channel near the Normandy coast off Barfleur, in 1120. Those drowned included William Adelin, the only legitimate son of King Henry I, which eventually precipitated a succession crisis.
Henry I died – possibly after eating an “excess of lampreys” – at Lyons-la-Forêt and was buried in Reading.
He was succeeded by his nephew Stephen of Blois (1135-1154), a grandson of William the Conqueror. The succession was disputed by Henry I’s daughter, the Empress Matilda.
“The Anarchy” - Civil war in England from 1139 to 1153.
Battle of Lincoln (February 1141). The forces of King Stephen had been besieging Lincoln Castle but were themselves attacked by a relief force loyal to Empress Matilda and commanded by Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, Matilda's half-brother. Stephen's forces were defeated. Stephen himself was captured and taken to Bristol, where he was imprisoned. He was subsequently exchanged for the Earl of Gloucester, and Matilda was defeated at the Battle of Winchester the following September.
The Treaty of Wallingford/Winchester/Westminster (1153) was an agreement that effectively ended the dispute.The Treaty forced Stephen to recognise Matilda's son Henry of Anjou, who became Henry II, as his heir, while Stephen kept the throne until he died.
Stephen died in 1154 in Dover and was buried at Faversham Abbey.
Plantagenets
12th-century nickname of Geoffrey II, Count of Gâtinais, perhaps because his emblem may have been the common broom, (planta genista in medieval Latin).
He was succeeded by Henry II (1154-1189). He married Eleanor of Aquitaine, the former wife of Louis VII of France.
Sons: William IX, Count of Poitiers (1153-1156); Henry the Young King; Richard I, King of England; Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany; John, King of England.
Battle of the Standard (1138), sometimes known as the Battle of Northallerton, took place on Cowton Moor near Northallerton in Yorkshire. William of Aumale routed King David I of Scotland.
Papal bull of 1161 granted by Alexander III, making Edward the Confessor a saint.
Scotland: William the Lion (William I) was king of Scotland from 1165 to 1214.
Pope Adrian IV issued the papal bull Laudabiliter, which gave Henry II authority to invade Ireland and bring its Church under the control of Rome in 1155.
Ireland: Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, known as Strongbow, was a Cambro-Norman lord notable his leading role in the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169.
Thomas Becket, later also known as Thomas a Becket, was chancellor, then became Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He engaged in conflict with Henry II over the rights and privileges of the Church and was assassinated by followers of the king (Reginald FitzUrse, Hugh de Moreville, William de Tracy, and Richard le Breton) in Canterbury Cathedral. Becket was canonised in 1173, and his tomb became a shrine
Henry the Young King was the only crowned associate King in the history of England following the Norman conquest – he was crowned in 1170 and “reigned” alongside Henry II until he died in 1182.
The Revolt of 1173–74 was a rebellion against Henry by three of his sons (Henry, Richard and Geoffrey) and his wife.
Henry II died at Chinon in 1189 and was buried at Fontevraud Abbey.
He was succeeded by Richard I the Lionheart (1189-1199).
Richard spent only a few months of his reign in England. The remainder of his reign was spent on the Third Crusade or in France.
He married Berengaria of Navarre in Cyprus in 1191.
Richard defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf (1191).
Whilst returning from the Third Crusade Richard was captured outside Vienna by Leopold V, Duke of Austria. He was imprisoned at Dürnstein Castle and later by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, in Trifels Castle before being ransomed for 150,000 marks (65,000 pounds of silver).
Richard died after being wounded by a crossbow bolt whilst besieging Châlus, in the Duchy of Aquitaine. He was buried at Fontevraud Abbey.
He was succeeded by his brother John (1199-1216).
Henry Fitzailwyn – first Lord Mayor of London, in 1189.
In 1208, England had an interdict imposed by Pope Innocent III - censure banning public church ceremonies.
King John sealed the Magna Carta (The Great Charter) at Runnymede on 15 June 1215. This was the first successful attempt to control the power of the English monarchy. Magna Carta was originally known as The Articles of the Barons.
Magna Carta was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War (1215–1217) – against a group of rebellious barons, led by Robert Fitzwalter and supported by a French army under the future Louis VIII of France.
John died at Newark Castle in 1216 ("surfeit of peaches"?) and was buried in Worcester Cathedral.
He was succeeded by his son Henry III (1216-1272).
Wales: Llywelyn the Great was a Prince of Gwynedd in north Wales and eventually de facto ruler over most of Wales (1218–1240).
Henry III’s attempt at personal rule proved unpopular with the barons.
Provisions of Oxford were installed in 1258 by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester; these documents are often regarded as England's first written constitution The provisions forced Henry III to accept a new form of government in which power was placed in the hands of a council of twenty four members, 12 selected by the crown, 12 by the barons.
Second Barons War (1264–1267) – Henry III versus the Lords, led by Simon de Montfort.
Battle of Lewes (1264) was one of two main battles of the Second Barons' War. It marked the high point of the career of Simon de Montfort and made him the ‘uncrowned King of England’. The battle occurred because of the vacillation of King Henry III, who was refusing to honour the terms of the Provisions of Oxford. Henry III and Prince Edward were captured.
Battle of Evesham (1265) was the second battle in the Second Barons' War. It marked the defeat of Simon de Montfort (who was killed) and the rebellious barons by Prince Edward – later King Edward I.
Scotland: Treaty of Perth in 1266 ended military conflict between Norway under King Magnus VI of Norway and Scotland under King Alexander III over the sovereignty of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man.
Henry III died in Westminster in 1272 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He was succeeded by Edward I (1272-1307) “Longshanks” who was not crowned until 1274 because of his involvement in the Ninth Crusade.
Wales: Edward I conquered Wales in 1282. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd was killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge (also known as the Battle of Irfon Bridge) in December 1272. His brother Daffyd was executed in 1283.
Jews expelled from England by Edward I in 1290.
Model Parliament is the term, attributed to Frederic William Maitland, used for the 1295 Parliament of England of King Edward I. This assembly included members of the clergy and the aristocracy, as well as representatives from the various counties and boroughs.
Scotland: Margaret, Maid of Norway was a Norwegian–Scottish princess who is widely considered to have been Queen of Scots from 1286 until her death, although this is disputed. She died in Orkney on her way to ascend the Scottish throne in 1290. Her death sparked off the disputed succession which led to the Wars of Scottish Independence.
John Balliol became King of Scotland in 1292.
In 1295 the Scots negotiated a treaty with France. In fury, the English invaded Scotland in 1296, they sacked Berwick, defeated the Scots army at Dunbar and took John Balliol prisoner, forcing him to abdicate.
Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297) was a battle of the First War of Scottish Independence. The forces of Andrew Moray and William Wallace defeated the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey and Hugh de Cressingham near Stirling.
Battle of Falkirk, which took place in 1298, was a major engagement in the First War of Scottish Independence. An English army commanded by Edward I defeated the Scots under William Wallace.
William Wallace fled to France, returning a few years later only to be caught near Glasgow. He was hung, drawn and quartered in London in 1305. First head to be displayed on a pike on London Bridge.
Robert the Bruce killed John III 'Red' Comyn, Lord of Badenoch before the high altar of the Greyfriars Church in Dumfries in 1306 and had himself crowned Robert I of Scotland. He was deposed by Edward I and fled.
Border Reivers were raiders along the Anglo–Scottish border from the late 13th century to the end of the 16th century. Their ranks consisted of both Scottish and English families.
Edward I died in July 1307 at Burgh by Sands, just south of the Scottish border. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He was succeeded by his son Edward II (1307-1327).
Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall was an English nobleman of Gascon origin, and the favourite of Edward II. Executed in 1312.
Edward II was defeated by Robert the Bruce at Battle of Bannockburn (near Stirling) in 1314. Robert the Bruce killed Henry de Bohun on the first day of the battle.
There was famine in Britain in 1315 and 1316 caused by crop failures due to heavy rainfall.
After the death of Gaveston at the hands of the barons, Edward later turned to a new favourite, Hugh Despenser.
Despenser War (1321–1322) was a baronial revolt against Edward II led by the Marcher Lords Roger Mortimer and Humphrey de Bohun. The rebellion was fuelled by opposition to Hugh Despenser the Younger, the royal favourite.
Ireland: Edward the Bruce was a younger brother of King Robert I of Scotland (Robert the Bruce), who supported his brother in the struggle for the crown of Scotland, then pursued his own claim in Ireland. He was proclaimed High King of Ireland, but was eventually defeated and killed in battle by Sir John de Bermingham in 1318.
Scotland: Declaration of Arbroath was a declaration of Scottish independence, and set out to confirm Scotland's status as an independent, sovereign state and its use of military action when unjustly attacked. It is in the form of a letter submitted to Pope John XXII, dated 6 April 1320 and suggests that he proclaim Bruce as the rightful monarch. Papal recognition arrived in 1324.
Roger Mortimer, the 1st Earl of March, had an adulterous relationship with Isabella of France, queen of Edward II (the “She-Wolf of France”), and he was responsible for deposing (and probably for murdering) King Edward in 1327.
Edward II died at Berkeley Castle during the night of 21 September 1327.
He was succeeded by his son Edward III (1327-1377) aged 14.
Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton was a peace treaty negotiated by Roger Mortimer, signed in 1328 between the Kingdoms of England and Scotland. It brought an end to the First War of Scottish Independence, which had begun with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296.
Scotland: Robert the Bruce died of leprosy at Cardross Castle in 1329, and is buried in Dunfermline Abbey. His heart was taken on the Crusades and later buried in Melrose Abbey.
Edward III had Roger Mortimer arrested as a traitor and he was hanged at Tyburn in 1330.
Battle of Halidon Hill of 1333 was fought during the Second War of Scottish Independence. Scottish forces under Sir Archibald Douglas were heavily defeated on unfavourable terrain while trying to relieve Berwick-upon-Tweed.
The King’s eldest son was Edward of Woodstock “the Black Prince” (1330–1376). The reason for the Black Prince soubriquet is disputed. It could be derived from Edward's black shield, and/or his black armour or from Edward's brutal reputation, particularly towards the French in Aquitaine (or neither!). He died a year before his father.
Edward III claimed the French throne, declared war against Philip VI in 1337 and started the Hundred Years War.
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 – 116 years)
Battle of Sluys (1340) was a sea battle fought in front of the town of Newmarket or Sluis, (French Écluse), on the inlet between West Flanders and Zeeland. It was one of the opening encounters of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed, giving the English fleet mastery over the channel.
Battle of Crécy (1346) after victories at Caen and Blanchetaque the English defeated a larger French army at Crécy in Northern France. The battle was one of the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of the longbow against charging knights. The Black Prince “earned his spurs”. Edward III’s command post was a windmill overlooking the battlefield. One of the French commanders, the blind John, King of Bohemia, was killed in the battle.
Battle of Poitiers (1356) was fought between the armies of Edward, the Black Prince and King John II of France. It was a decisive English victory at which King John and his retinue were captured.
Battle of Agincourt (1415) the final major victory for English forces. The battle is notable for the use of the English longbow, which Henry V used in very large numbers, with English and Welsh archers forming most of his army.
Battle of Castillon (1453) was a decisive French victory, and is considered to mark the end of the Hundred Years' War. As a result of the battle, the English lost all landholdings in France, except Calais and the Channel Islands. The English commander Sir John Talbot and his son were killed.
The Black Death started in Asia and reached Britain in 1348, from a ship that landed at Weymouth. It is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population, reducing the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in 1400. Black Death caused by Yersinia pestis bacterium.
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (1340–1399) was the third surviving son of King Edward III and Philippa of Hainault. He gained his name ‘John of Gaunt’ because he was born in Ghent, then called Gaunt. He exercised tremendous influence over the English throne during the minority reign of his nephew, Richard II.
Battle of Neville’s Cross (1346) was fought west of Durham. It was the culmination of a Scottish invasion of northern England, the battle ended with the rout of the Scots and the capture of their king, David II of Scotland.
St Scholastica Day riot of 1355 saw armed clashes between locals and students in Oxford.
The first Speaker of the House of Commons was Sir Thomas Hungerford, who took office in 1376.
The Hilary Parliament levied a poll tax in 1377 to finance the war against France at the request of John of Gaunt who, since King Edward III was mortally sick, was the de facto head of government at the time.
Edward III died at Sheen in 1377.
He was succeeded by Richard II (1377-1400) who was the son of Edward the Black Prince. Richard was aged 10 on his accession.
Peasants’ Revolt (1381) was led by Wat Tyler and John Ball. Wat Tyler was killed by William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London. ‘You shall have no captain but me’ – Richard II to rebels after Walworth killed Tyler at Smithfield.
Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor Simon Sudbury was dragged from the Tower of London to Tower Hill and beheaded after eight blows to his neck. His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral, though his head (after being taken down from London Bridge) is still kept at the church of St Gregory at Sudbury in Suffolk.
Wonderful Parliament – an English Parliamentary session of November 1386 which pressed for reforms of Richard II's administration
Battle of Otterburn took place in 1388 as part of the continuing border war between England and Scotland. It was a victory for the Scots, led by James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Douglas, over Harry Hotspur, son of the Earl of Northumberland. Douglas was killed in the battle.
Merciless Parliament refers to the English parliamentary session of February through June 1388 at which many members of Richard II's Court were convicted of treason.
Richard Whittington was elected Lord Mayor of London in 1397, and on three subsequent occasions. He married Alice Fitzwarren.
Henry Bolingbroke, the eldest son of John of Gaunt was exiled in 1398. His father died a year later and Richard II disputed his inheritance. He returned to England whilst Richard was in Ireland and usurped the throne as Henry IV.
Richard II was deposed in September 1399 and is thought to have starved to death in captivity at Pontefract Castle on or around 14 February 1400. Originally buried in Kings Langley, Henry V – in an effort both to atone for his father's act of murder and to silence the rumours of Richard's survival –moved the body to its final resting place in Westminster Abbey.
Based in Ludlow, the Council of Wales and the Marches was a regional administrative body within the Kingdom of England between the 15th and 17th centuries. A Marcher Lord was a strong and trusted noble appointed by the King of England to guard the border (known as the Welsh Marches) between England and Wales.
William Sawtrey was an English Roman Catholic priest who was executed for heresy, becoming the first Lollard martyr in 1401.
Battle of Shrewsbury was fought in 1403, at what is now Battlefield in Shropshire. It was between an army led by the Lancastrian King, Henry IV, and a rebel army led by Henry ‘Hotspur’ Percy from Northumberland, who died in the battle. Prince Henry (later Henry V) suffered an arrow wound to his face during the battle.
Battle of Bramham Moor was the final battle in the Percy Rebellion of 1402 to 1408. Henry Percy (“Hotspur’s father) died in the battle.
Henry IV died in the Jerusalem Chamber in the abbot's house of Westminster Abbey in 1413, thus fulfilling a prophecy that he would die in Jerusalem (as reported by Holinshed and Shakespeare).
He was succeeded by Henry V (1413-1422).
The victory at Agincourt (see above), against a numerically superior French army, crippled France. After the Treaty of Troyes, Henry married the French king's daughter Catherine de Valois and their son, Henry VI, was made heir to the throne of France.
The Palace of Placentia was built in 1428 in Greenwich by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (brother of Henry V and Lord Protector to his young nephew King Henry VI). The Palace was demolished and replaced with the Greenwich Hospital in the late 17th century. It was the birthplace of King Henry VIII in 1491 and Elizabeth I in 1533.
Henry V died suddenly on 31 August 1422 at the Château de Vincennes near Paris.
He was succeeded by his 9 month old son Henry VI (1422-1461, 1470-1471).
Jack Cade led a rebellion against the government of England in 1450.
Disputes between Richard of York, a great-grandson of King Edward III and Henry VI's wife, Margaret of Anjou, and other members of Henry's court, as well as his competing claim on the throne, were a leading factor in the political upheaval of mid-fifteenth-century England, and a major cause of the Wars of the Roses.
In August 1453, Henry VI suffered a catastrophic mental breakdown perhaps brought on by the news of the defeat at the Battle of Castillon (see above) which finally drove English forces from France. He became completely unresponsive, unable to speak and having to be led from room to room. Richard of York was appointed Protector of the Realm and Chief Councillor.
Henry “recovered” in January 1455 and reversed some of York’s actions leading to an escalation of the conflict between Lancastrians and Yorkists (not actually strict terms for the combatants but convenient labels).
Parliament of Devils – held in Coventry in 1459 in the reign of Henry VI.
Wars of the Roses
First Battle of St Albans (22 May 1455) traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, defeated the Lancastrians under Edmund, Duke of Somerset, who was killed. York also captured Henry VI.
After the battle York reaffirmed his allegiance to the King and was reappointed Lord Protector, until February 1456.
Battle of Blore Heath (1459) saw a failed ambush by Lancastrians turned into a Yorkist victory.
Battle of Ludford Bridge (1459) largely bloodless battle following Blore Heath where the Yorkist leaders abandoned their army, which surrendered to Henry VI.
After Ludford Bridge many of the Yorkist commanders went into self-imposed exile. The Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, retired to Dublin and his principal supporters the Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick and his father the Earl of Salisbury, and York's son Edward, Earl of March went to Calais.
Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (1428–1471), known as “Warwick the Kingmaker”, was an English nobleman, administrator and military commander. The son of Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, Warwick was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer of his age.
In June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury and Edward landed at Sandwich and advanced North through London.
Battle of Northampton (1460) a Yorkist victory after the Lancastrian Lord Grey changed sides during the battle. Henry VI was captured by an archer, Henry Mountfort.
The Duke of York returned from Ireland and attempted to claim the throne. The House of Lords passed the Act of Accord, by which Henry would remain king, but York would govern the country as Lord Protector. Henry's son was disinherited, and York or his heirs would become king on Henry's death.
Battle of Wakefield (1460) the Duke of York led a sortie from his castle at Sandal Magna near Wakefield. His army was surrounded and destroyed and he himself was killed. His son Edward became the 4th Duke of York.
Battle of Mortimer’s Cross (2 February 1461) fought near Wigmore, Herefordshire. As dawn broke, the meteorological phenomenon known as parhelion occurred: three suns were seen to be rising. The appearance of this sun dog so soon before the battle seems to have frightened his troops, but Edward of York appears to have convinced them that it represented the Holy Trinity and that therefore God was on their side. He later took it as his emblem, the "Sun in Splendour". The Lancastrians led by Owen Tudor were defeated and Owen was executed in Hereford.
Second Battle of St Albans (17 February 1461) a Yorkist army led by the Earl of Warwick was defeated and King Henry, who had been Warwick's prisoner, was released from captivity.
Battle of Towton (Palm Sunday, 29 March 1461) the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on British soil, with casualties believed to have been in excess of 20,000 men. It is estimated that roughly 1 in every 100 Englishmen of that time died at Towton. The battle lasted several hours and the Lancastrians were overwhelmed, with many being killed in the rout.
On receiving news of their army's defeat, Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son. Edward, Duke of York took the throne as Edward IV (1461-1470, 1471-1483).
Battle of Hexham (1464) marked the end of significant Lancastrian resistance in the north of England during the early part of Edward’s reign.
Friction between Edward IV and the Earl of Warwick over Edward’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and his refusal to allow the marriage of Warwick’s daughter to his brother the Duke of Clarence eventually led to Warwick’s defection to the Lancastrian cause.
Henry VI captured and put in the Tower in 1465.
Battle of Edgecote Moor (1469) took place near Banbury. A royal (Yorkist) army was defeated by rebels led by the Earl of Warwick.
Edward was subsequently captured at Olney. Although Warwick then attempted to rule in Edward's name, he was forced to release Edward on 10 September 1469.
Battle of Empinham (1470) a rebel army led by Robert Welles believed to be supported by Warwick and Clarence was easily defeated by Edward IV. Also known as the battle of Losecoat Field because the routed rebels discarded the livery which would have identified them as rebels (may not be historically correct!).
Warwick fled to France and joined forces with Henry VI’s wife, Margaret of Anjou. An invasion of England by Warwick forced Edward IV to flee to Flanders in September 1470. Henry VI was restored to the throne.
Edward IV returned to England in early 1471 and reconciled with his brother Clarence.
Battle of Barnet (14 April 1471) was fought initially in thick fog which led to many “friendly fire” deaths amongst Lancastrians and cries of treason. Warwick’s army was defeated and Warwick was killed whilst retreating.
Battle of Tewkesbury (4 May 1471) completed one phase of the Wars of the Roses. It put a temporary end to Lancastrian hopes of regaining the throne of England. The Lancastrian heir Edward, Prince of Wales was killed after the battle and many Lancastrian nobles were executed after being dragged from the “sanctuary” of Tewkesbury Abbey.
Henry VI murdered in the Tower of London on 21 May 1471.
Scotland: James I of Scotland was murdered in 1437 and James II was killed at siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460 by an exploding cannon.
In 1482 Berwick was captured by Richard Duke of Gloucester, the future King Richard III, although not officially merged into England.
Ireland: Blarney Castle was destroyed in 1446 but subsequently rebuilt by Cormac MacCarthy, the King of Munster.
George, Duke of Clarence was the third son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the brother of kings Edward IV and Richard III. He was allegedly drowned in a butt on malmsey wine in 1478.
Edward IV died on 9 April 1483 and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.
He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, Edward V (1483) (he was never crowned).
Edward had named his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, as Protector after his death.
Princes in the Tower is a term which refers to Edward V of England (12 years old) and Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York (9 years old). The two brothers were the only sons of Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville alive at the time of their father's death. Richard of Gloucester intercepted Edward at Stony Stratford on his way to London and arrested his retinue.
Edward was then escorted to London and lodged in the Tower of London prior to his coronation. Meanwhile his mother, together with his brother Richard had taken sanctuary but she later agreed for Richard to join his brother in the Tower.
Richard of Gloucester then had the boys declared illegitimate and claimed the throne as Richard III (1483-1485). The princes disappeared from view in mid 1483 and their fate is a matter of some dispute!
Richard was married to Anne Neville, the daughter of the Earl of Warwick.
Richard put down a rebellion by his erstwhile supporter Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who was convicted of treason and beheaded in Salisbury on 2 November 1483.
Richard’s only legitimate son, Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales died in 1484 aged 10 and Richard’s wife Anne died in March 1485.
Lancastrian claimant Henry Tudor landed at Mill Bay near Milford Haven in August 1485 with a small French and Scottish force.
Battle of Bosworth (22 August 1485) was fought between the forces of Richard III and the army of the Lancastrian claimant Henry Tudor (although it was actually commanded by John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford). Thomas, Lord Stanley, and Sir William Stanley brought a force to the battlefield, but held back while they decided which side it would be more advantageous to support.
After the initial fighting and fearing that Henry would get the support of the Stanleys, Richard decided to end the fight quickly by killing the enemy commander. He led a charge and killed Henry's standard-bearer Sir William Brandon but couldn’t reach Henry. William Stanley then joined Henry's side and Richard was killed.
The death of Richard III marked the end of the Plantagenet dynasty.
After the battle, Richard's circlet (crown) was found and Henry was crowned king at the top of Crown Hill, near the village of Stoke Golding.
Richard’s body was brought to Leicester and interred in a plain unmarked tomb within the church of the Greyfriars. A skeleton discovered in what was by then a car park in 2012 was subsequently identified as being that of Richard III.
Henry Tudor became King Henry VII (1485-1509).
