Art and Culture/Roman Emperors
The End of the Roman Republic
First Triumvirate – an informal political alliance of two rival generals, Julius Caesar (Gaius Julius Caesar) and Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) representing the popular viz. senatorial party, with the extremely wealthy businessman Marcus Licinius Crassus (the general who finally overcame Spartacus). This fell apart after the death of Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53BC and the two other triumvirs fought a civil war, during which Pompey was killed and Caesar established his sole rule as perpetual dictator. Pompey fled after defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece in 48 BC, and was murdered arrival at Alexandria on the orders of the pharaoh Ptolemy.
Julius Caesar (100BC - 44BC). He was married to Cornelia (daughter of Cinna), then Pompeia (sister of Pompey) and finally to Calpurnia. Caesar conquered the whole of Gaul from the Rhine to the Pyrenees, and made expeditions to Britain and Germania. In 52 BC he defeated a union of Gauls led by Vercingetorix at the siege of Alesia. In 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only one legion and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar is reported to have said ‘alea iacta est’ (‘The die is cast’). Caesar became Pontifex Maximus (chief priest) in 63 BC, then Praetor. Caesar and Cleopatra had a son, Caesarion. He was assassinated in the Theatre of Pompey in 44BC. Two of the assassins, Brutus and Cassius were killed at the Battle of Philippi in 42BC.
Second Triumvirate – was a formal governing body, consisting of Octavian (Gaius Octavius – Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted son), Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Lepidus was sidelined early on in the triumvirate and Antony was eliminated in a civil war, leaving Octavian as the sole leader. Mark Antony was married to Octavia Minor, sister of Octavian. Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi. Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) and Octavian became Emperor.
Octavius rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis ("First Citizen of the State"). The resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire.
On 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps. Augustus, from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase), can be translated as "the illustrious one". It was a title of religious rather than political authority.
The Roman Senate granted Augustus the title "Pater Patriae" (Father of the Country") in 2 BC”.
Pax Romana (27 BC – 180 AD), Latin for ‘the Roman peace’, is the long period of relative peace experienced by states within the Roman Empire.
Roman Emperors
Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD)
Dynasty: Julio-Claudian
Reign: 27 BC - 14 AD (sometimes set at 31 BC - 14 AD)
Born: Rome
Father: Gaius Octavius
Mother: Atia
Reign: 27 BC - 14 AD
Actual name: Gaius Octavius, from 44 BC Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus
Relation to previous emperor: n.a. but was grandnephew of Julius Caesar
Wives: 1. Scribonia, 2. Livia Drusilla (aka Julia Augusta)
Children: Julia (by 1st wife)
Died: in bed (possibly poisoned by Livia)
Named in Caesar's will as his heir and became the first Roman Emperor. He formed 2nd Triumvirate with Mark Anthony and Lepidus. When the Triumvirate fell apart he defeated Anthony at the Battle of Actium (31 BC). Renounced his dictatorship in 27 BC but was declared "Augustus" and "Imperator" (literally Illustrious and General) which placed him at the head of the state. He received lifelong tribunician power, which gave him complete control. "He found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble."
An expansion of the Empire into northern Germany was halted by the defeat of Varus by Arminius (Hermann) at the Battle of the Teutoberger Wald (9 AD).
Res Gestae Divi Augusti is the funerary inscription of Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments.
Tiberius (42 BC - 37 AD)
Dynasty: Julio-Claudian
Reign: 14 - 37 AD
Born: Rome
Father: Tiberius Claudius Nero
Mother: Livia Drusilla (a k a Julia Augusta)
Actual name: Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar
Relation to previous emperor: step (adopted) son (the son of Livia)
Wives: 1. Vipsania Agrippina, 2. Julia (daughter of Augustus)
Died: in bed (possibly smothered by Macro)
Adopted by Augustus, he was the son of Livia by her 1st husband (she was pregnant with him when she married Augustus). He served with some success in the army on the Rhine. Cut back on expenditure. Retired to Capri in 26 AD and never returned to Rome. Left Rome in hands of Aelius Sejanus, until Sejanus (and Livilla, Tiberius' daughter) were accused of treason and executed in 31 AD. Final years saw increasing paranoia, prosecutions and executions.
Germanicus was the grandson-in-law and great-nephew of the Emperor Augustus, nephew and adoptive son of the Emperor Tiberius, father of the Emperor Caligula, brother of the Emperor Claudius, and the maternal grandfather of the Emperor Nero. Married Agrippina the Elder. His own campaigns in Germania made him famous after avenging the defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest and retrieving the legion's eagles lost during the battle. When he died in 19 in Antioch his death aroused much speculation, with several sources blaming Piso, acting under orders from Emperor Tiberius.
Caligula (12 - 41)
Dynasty: Julio-Claudian
Reign: 37 - 41 AD
Born: in Treveri on the Rhine
Father: Germanicus Tiberius Caesar
Mother: Agrippina (daughter of Marcus Agrippa)
Actual name: Gauis Julius Caesar Germanicus
Nickname: means "little boot" (from wearing miniature soldiers uniform as a child).
Relation to previous emperor: grandnephew (Caligula was the son of Germanicus)
Wives: 1. Junia Claudia, 2. Livia Orestilla, 3. Lollia Paulina, 4. Milonia Caesonia
Children: Julia Drusilla (by Caesonia)
Died: Assassinated
Short reign marked by wild extravagance and brutality. After illness he became increasingly mad and subject to wild mood changes. It is probably an apocryphal story that he made his horse Incitatus a consul. Killed (along with his wife and baby daughter) in a corridor under the circus by his Praetorian bodyguard led by Cassius Chaerea.
Claudius (10 BC - 54 AD)
Dynasty: Julio-Claudian
Reign: 41 - 54 AD
Born: in Lugdunum in Gaul (modern day Lyon)
Father: Drusus Nero Claudius Germanicus
Mother: Antonia Minor (daughter of Mark Anthony)
Actual name: Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus
Relation to previous emperor: uncle (Claudius was the grandson of Mark Anthony)
Wives: 1. Plantia Urgulanilla, 2. Aelia Paetina, 3. Messalina, 4. Agrippina
Children: Britannicus, Octavia (both by Messalina)
Died: Poisoned by Agrippina (with mushrooms)
He was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. Hampered by a disability and believed by the family to be mentally deficient he managed to avoid all the intrigue and machination so that at Caligula's death he was only surviving male of direct descent. He had spent his time writing histories of Etruria and Carthage. Proclaimed emperor by the Preatorian guard (purportedly found hiding behind a curtain).
He ordered the invasion of Britain, which he visited. Had his wife Messalina executed for treason (she "married" the consul Silius whilst Claudius was in Ostia). Married his niece Agrippina and adopted her son Nero. She is believed to have fed him poisoned mushrooms.
Britannicus, Claudius’ son by Messalina, survived only months into his step brother Nero's reign, and was probably murdered just before his 14th birthday.
Nero (37 - 68)
Dynasty: Julio-Claudian
Reign: 54 - 68 AD
Born: Antium
Father: Gnaeus Domitias Ahenobarbus
Mother: Agrippina (daughter of Germanicus)
Actual name: Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
Nickname: Nero means "brave and energetic"
Relation to previous emperor: step (adopted) son (the son of Agrippina)
Wives: 1. Octavia, 2. Poppaea Sabina
Died: committed suicide
The final Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Acceded at the age of 16 but in the early years he was guided by his mother and by his tutor Seneca. He disposed of both (there was a first failed attempt to kill his mother in a “collapsing” boat) and also his 1st wife in order to marry his mistress (59 - 62 AD). Unjustly (probably) accused of setting fire to half the city of Rome. He carried out a persecution of the Christians (deaths of St Peter and St Paul). Built the Domus Aurea (Golden House), a large landscaped portico villa built by the in the heart of ancient Rome, after the great fire in 64 AD had cleared away the aristocratic dwellings on the slopes of the Palatine Hill. His extravagance drained the Roman treasury.
Plot suppressed in 65 AD but further revolts in the provinces led to his suicide ("What an artist dies in me!").
Other events of his reign: revolts in Britain (Boudicca, 60 AD), Palestine (66 AD).
Year of the Four Emperors (69)
Galba (3 - 69) (Servius Sulpicius Galba - emperor from June 68 to January 69) was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne during the rebellion of Julius Vindex. He was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. He was assassinated on the way to confront rebels under Otho.
Otho (32 - 69)(Marcus Salvius Otho - emperor from 15 January to 16 April 69) was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. He rebelled after being overlooked for adoption byGalba. He committed suicide after his troops were defeated at the First Battle of Bedracium by Vitellius.
Vitellius (15 - 69) (Aulus Vitellius - emperor from 17 April to 22 December 69) was the third emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors. Governor of the province of Germania Inferior, had also claimed the throne at the same time as Otho and marched on Rome with his troops. He defeated Otho’s troops at the First Battle of Bedracium but was in turn defeated at the same location by Vespasian forces. He was captured and executed in Rome.
Vespasian (9 - 79)
Dynasty: Flavian
Reign: 69 - 79 AD
Born: Falacrina (in Sabine country)
Father: Flavius Sabinus
Mother: Vespasia Polla
Actual name: Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus
Relation to previous emperor: unrelated
Wife: Flavia Domitilla (and his long term mistress Antonia Caenis).
Children: Titus, Domitian and Domitilla
Died: in bed
He was born in Falacrina, the son of a tax collector. He served in the army in Thrace, Germany, and Britain nad then served as Governor in Africa. Famously fell asleep during one of Nero's recitals. He was then sent to quell a Jewish revolt. Became Emperor during the "Year of the Four Emperors" (69 AD - Nero was succeeded by Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian).
He restored Rome's buildings and restored prosperity and peace to the empire. He began the building of the Coliseum (Flavian Amphitheatre). Died at Aquae Cutiliae ("Dear me! I must be turning into a god").
His was succeeded by his sons Titus (79 - 81 AD) and Domitian (81 - 96 AD).
Titus (39 - 81) (emperor from 79 to 81) he was a successful general who crushed the Jewish Rebellion in 70 during which the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed. He was considered a good emperor by Tacitus and other contemporary historians; he is best-known for his public building program in Rome and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and the fire of Rome of 80. Had a love affair with Berenice, the daughter of King Herod Agrippa I and a sister of King Herod Agrippa II.
Domitian (51 - 96) (emperor from 81 to 96) was the last member of the Flavian Dynasty. He built a palace on the Palatine Hill and an arch in memory of Titus. Domitian's government exhibited totalitarian characteristics; and according to Suetonius, he was the first Roman Emperor who had demanded to be addressed as “dominus et deus” (master and god). He was assassinated as the result of a plot by court officials.
Domitian was followed by the "Five Good Emperors" - Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who ruled in total from 96 to 180. They were known for their moderate policies, in contrast to their more tyrannical and oppressive successors and predecessors; their rule was at the height of the Empire's prosperity during the Pax Romana.
Nerva (30 - 98) (emperor from 96 to 98) became Emperor at the age of sixty-five and ruled for 15 months. Forced by the Praetorian Guard to adopt an heir he chose Trajan, a young and popular general, as his successor.
Trajan (53 - 117)
Dynasty: "Adopted" Emperor
Reign: 98 - 117 AD
Born: Italica (Spain)
Relation to previous emperor: unrelated but adopted by Nerva
Wife: Pompeia Plotina
Children: none
Died: in bed at Selinus in Cilicia.
Having served successfully in the army during reign of Domitian he became emperor on death of his adopted father Nerva. Decisively defeated the Dacians (106 AD) - this became the subject of the sculptures on Trajan's Column. The phrase "bread and circuses" (Juvenal) was first coined during his reign. He added the province of Arabia to the Empire by defeating Nabataeans (Capital - Petra). Under his rule, the Empire reached its greatest territorial extent.
Trajan completed many building projects (including best known of Rome's fora). He repaired and built many new roads, bridges, and aqueducts throughout the empire, improving the water supply of many towns and making travel much faster and easier. He nominated Hadrian (who was married to his great niece) as his successor. Died whilst returning from a campaign against Parthia.
Hadrian (76 - 138 AD)
Dynasty: "Adopted" Emperor
Reign: 117 - 138 AD
Born: Rome or Italica (Spain)
Father: Publius Aelius Afer
Mother: Domitia Paulina
Actual name: Traianus Hadrianus Augustus
Relation to previous emperor: unrelated but adopted by Trajan
Wife: Vibia Sabina
Children: none
Died: in bed at Baiae near Naples
Adopted by Trajan and married to his great niece. Named as successor on Trajan's deathbed, 4 ex-consuls were executed in Rome before Hadrian arrived (the Affair of the Four Consulates). Spent more than half his reign travelling and toured the provinces 120 - 131, including Britain in 121 -122, when he ordered the building of the wall. Domestically, began his reign by burning all documentation of outstanding debts. Great builder - completed (after 600 years) the temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens. Antinous (a favourite) drowned in the Nile (for reasons unclear). In the Talmud, Hadrian’s name is followed by the words ‘may his bones rot’. He appointed Antoninus Pius as his successor, to be followed jointly by Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius.
Antoninus Pius (86 - 161) (emperor from 138 to 161) was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors and a member of the Aurelii. He did not possess the sobriquet Pius until after his accession to the throne because of his efforts to persuade the Senate to deify Hadrian. He ordered the building of the Antonine wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned.
Marcus Aurelius (121 - 180)
Dynasty: "Adopted" Emperor (Antonine)
Reign: 161 - 180 AD
Born: Rome
Father: Annius Verus
Mother: Domitia Lucilla
Actual name: Marcus Annius Verus
Relation to previous emperor: unrelated but adopted by Antoninus Pius (on Hadrian's insistence)
Wife: Faustina (his cousin)
Children: Commodus, Lucilla (plus 11 others)
Died: in bed at Vindobona in Germany
Adopted by Antoninus Pius he jointly ruled with his brother (also adopted), Lucius Verus (died 169). His reign was dominated by warfare with invaders on all important frontiers. Stoic philosopher whose "Meditations" written on campaign between 170 – 180, were published after his death. Succeeded by Commodus ("a change from a golden kingdom to one of iron and rust")
Lucius Verus (130 - 169) (co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius from 161 until his death in 169). He was the adopted son, and intended successor, of Emperor Hadrian.
Commodus (161 - 192)
Dynasty: Antonine
Reign: 180 - 192
Born: Lanuvium
Father: Marcus Aurelius
Mother: Faustina
Actual name: Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus
Relation to previous emperor: son
Died: strangled by the wrestler Narcissus
Commodus was the first (and until 337, the only) emperor "born in the purple", i.e., during his father's reign. He also ruled as co-emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius from 177 until his father's death in 180.
Abruptly ended his father's wars and returned to Rome. Unstable. Dressed up as Hercules and claimed to be new founder of Rome, which he renamed "Commodiana". He took part, always successfully, in gladiatorial and wild-beast contests. He was strangled to death by his wrestling partner Narcissus
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
Pertinax (126 - 193) (emperor from 192 to 193) was the urban praetor of Rome. His reign lasted 3 months. He tried to restore discipline in the Praetorian Guards, whereupon they rebelled and killed him.
Didius Julianus (133/137 – 193) (emperor 28 March – 1 June 193) ascended the throne after buying it from the Praetorian Guard by offering to pay 25,000 sesterces to every soldier. The generals Pescennius Niger in Syria, Septimius Severus in Pannonia, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, each having three legions under his command, refused to recognise the authority of Julianus. Julianus was killed in the palace by a soldier in the third month of his reign and according to Cassius Dio, his last words were "But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?"
Pescennius Niger (135/140 – 194) (emperor 9 April 193 – May 194) Niger was proclaimed Emperor by the eastern legions. Defeated by Severus, he was captured and beheaded during a retreat from Antioch.
Clodius Albinus (150 - 197) (emperor 193 and 196-197) proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain and Hispania after the murder of Pertinax. He was initially allied with Septimius Severus, who had captured Rome, and accepted the title of Caesar from him, making him effective ruler of the western provinces. Fearing the rise of Severus after the defeat of Niger, he proclaimed himself emperor in 196 and invaded Gaul from Britain. Defeated and killed (either suicide or execution) at the Battle of Lugdunum (Lyon).
Septimius Severus (145 - 211) (emperor 193-211) was the only emperor to be born in North Africa (Leptis Magna). Severus' victory at the Battle of Lugdunum in 197 finally established him as the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. He carried out military campaigns in Parthia, North Africa and Britain. He strengthened Hadrian's Wall and reconquered the Southern Uplands up to the Antonine Wall, which was also enhanced. In 210 he obtained a peace with the Picts that lasted practically until the final withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain. Died at Eboracum (York). Last words to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men". He was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta.
Caracalla (188 - 217)
Dynasty: Severan
Reign: 211 - 217
Born: Lyon
Father: Septimius Severus
Mother: Julia Domna
Actual name: Lucius Septimius Bassianus
Nickname: Caracalla is the name for the type of cloak he habitually wore.
Relation to previous emperor: son
Wife: Fulvia Plautilla
Died: killed by his own bodyguard whilst in Edessa (possibly while having a shit by the side of the road)
He was appointed joint emperor with his brother Publius Septimius Geta, before having Geta murdered at the end of 211. He granted universal Roman citizenship to all free residents of the Empire and built the Baths of Caracalla in Rome. He was assassinated in 217.
Macrinus (165 - 218) (emperor from 217 to 218) was a member of the equestrian class and the first emperor not from the senatorial class. He lost the support of the army after introducing financial reforms and was defeated by forces supporting Elagabalus and executed.
Elagabalus (203 -222) (emperor from 218 to 222) was also known as Heliogabalus after an eastern sun-god or (more properly as emperor) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus but was born in Syria as Varius Avitus Bassianus. He had a reputation among his contemporaries for extreme eccentricity, decadence and zealotry. In one episode he smothered to death guests at a dinner with a mass of ‘violets and other flowers’ dropped from above. He was assassinated, just 18 years old, and replaced by his cousin Alexander Severus on 11 March 222, in a plot formulated by his grandmother.
Alexander Severus (emperor from 222 to 235) was the last Roman emperor of the Severan dynasty. After campaigning against the Sassanids in Persia he faced further problems in Germany. A decision to pay off the German tribes did not sit well with the army and he was assassinated at a meeting with his generals in Mogontiacum (Mainz). He was succeeded by Maximinus Thrax (173 – 238) (emperor 235 to 238).
Alexander’s assassination marked the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century.
Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis) is the name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by the three simultaneous crises of external invasion, internal civil war and economic collapse. The changes in the institutions, society, economic life and eventually religion were so profound and fundamental, that the ‘Crisis of the Third Century’ is increasingly seen as the watershed marking the difference between the classical world and the early medieval world, or world of late antiquity.
Year of the Six Emperors (238)
Six people were recognised as emperors of Rome during the year 238:
Maximinus; Gordian I; Gordian II; Pupienus; Balbinus and Gordian III.
Gordian III (225 - 244) (emperor 238 – 244) aged 13, he became the youngest sole legal Roman emperor, though government was carried out by the Senate.
Marcus Julius Philippus or Philip the Arab (204 – 249) (emperor from 244 to 249) was born in Syria. He was emperor when Rome celebrated 1000 years of existence.
Trajan Decius (201 – 251) (emperor 249 – 251). In the last year of his reign, he co-ruled with his son Herennius Etruscus until they were both killed in the Battle of Abritus against a federation of Scythian tribesmen under the Goth king Cniva. They were the first Roman emperors killed in battle with a foreign enemy.
Trebonianus Gallus (206 – 253) (emperor 251 – 253) in a joint rule with his son Volusianus. They were defeated and killed by rival claimant Aemilian (207/213 – 253) (emperor for three months in 253) who in turn was killed by his own men when another general, Valerian, proclaimed himself Emperor and moved against him with a larger army.
Valerian (193/195/200 – 260 or 264) (emperor from 253 to 260) was taken captive by Persian king Shapur I after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war.
Gallienus (218 – 268) (emperor with his father Valerian from 253 - 260 and alone from 260 – 268). While he won a number of military victories, he was unable to prevent the secession of important provinces.
Claudius II Gothicus (213 – 270) (emperor 268 – 270). During his reign he fought successfully against the Alamanni and scored a crushing victory against the Goths at the Battle of Naissus.
Quintillus (220 – 270) (emperor for less than a year in 270).
Aurelian (214 or 215 – 275) (emperor 270 – 275). Born in humble circumstances, he rose through the military ranks to become emperor. During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome, and the abandonment of the province of Dacia.
Tacitus (200 – 276) (emperor 275 – 276).
Florian (emperor for a few months in 276).
Probus (232 – 282) (emperor 276 – 282) during his reign, the Rhine and Danube frontier was strengthened after successful wars against several Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Alamanni, Longiones, Franks, Burgundians, and Vandals. The Agri Decumates and much of the Limes Germanicus in Germania Superior were officially abandoned during his reign, with the Romans withdrawing to the Rhine and Danube rivers.
Carus (224 – 283) (emperor 282 – 283). During his short reign, Carus fought the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians along the Danube frontier with success. During his campaign against the Sassanid Empire, he sacked their capital Ctesiphon, but died shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by his sons Carinus and Numerian, creating a dynasty which, though short-lived, granted further stability to a resurgent empire.
Numerian (co-emperor 282 – 284) with his older brother Carinus. On his death in the east, Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession and chose as emperor Diocletian, commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard.
Carinus (emperor 282 – 285). The elder son of emperor Carus, he was first appointed Caesar and in the beginning of 283 co-emperor of the western portion of the empire by his father. He was defeated by Diocletian at the Battle of the Margus River (Morava).
Diocletian (236 - 316)
Reign: 284 - 305
Born: Salona
Actual name: Diocles
Wife: Prisca
Children: Valeria
Died: in his bed in Split
Ended the "Imperial Crisis" (235 - 284). Established a military despotism and responsible for the "Tetrarchy". He reorganised the administration of both civilian and military arms of the Empire. He doubled the number of provinces and appointed 2 Augusti (Senior Emperor) and 2 Caesars (Junior Emperor). Divided the empire in two – he took the eastern part and Maximian took the west. He instituted the "Great Persecution" against Christians in an attempt to unify religion on an Imperial Cult. In 303, Diocletian and his colleagues Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding the legal rights of Christians and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. After 20 years he abdicated and retired to Split in Croatia, where he died in 316. He was the first emperor to retire voluntarily.
Maximian, was Caesar (junior Roman Emperor) from 285 and Augustus (senior Roman Emperor) from 286 to 305. He shared the latter title with his co-emperor and superior, Diocletian.
Constantius I ( 250 – 306) (Caesar 293 – 305, Augustus in the West 305 - 306) commonly known as Constantius Chlorus. He was the father of Constantine the Great and founder of the Constantinian dynasty. As Caesar, he defeated the usurper Allectus in Britain and campaigned extensively along the Rhine frontier, defeating the Alamanni and Franks. Upon becoming Augustus in 305, Constantius launched a successful punitive campaign against the Picts beyond the Antonine Wall but he died suddenly in Eburacum (York) the following year. His death sparked the collapse of the tetrarchic system of government inaugurated by the Emperor Diocletian.
Galerius (260 – 311) (Caesar 293 – 305, Augustus in the East 305 – 311). During his reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of Christianity, Galerius ended the Diocletianic Persecution when he issued an edict of toleration in 311.
Severus (Augustus in the West 306 – 307) promoted to Augustus by Galerius, in opposition to the acclamation of Constantine I by his own soldiers. When Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximian, revolted at Rome, Galerius sent Severus to suppress the rebellion but he was captured and executed.
Constantine I, the Great (271 - 337)
Dynasty: Constantinian
Reign: 306 - 337
Born: Nish in Serbia
Father: Constantius
Mother: Helena
Wife: Fausta
Died: in bed at Nicomedia.
His father was appointed Caesar in the first Tetrarchy of Diocletian and became Augustus when Diocletian abdicated. On his father's death in York in 306, he was proclaimed Augustus by his troops. Invaded Italy in 312 and defeated his rival Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. He had seen a sign of the cross in the sky with "In this Conquer" inscribed beneath and also a vision that his troops should have the Chi-Rho symbol on their shields. The Edict of Milan formulated with Augustus in the East, Licinius, granted Christians complete religious freedom. Constantine defeated and executed Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis in 323, making himself sole emperor.
In 324 Constantine announced his decision to transform Byzantium into Nova Roma and in 330 he officially proclaimed the city as the new capital of the Roman Empire. The city was renamed Constantinople, i.e. The City of Constantine, after Constantine's death in 337.
In 325 the Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism and established the Nicene Creed which affirmed transubstantiation. Constantine was baptised a Christian on his deathbed.
Saint Helena was the consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine the Great. She is traditionally credited with finding the relics of the True Cross, with which she is invariably represented in Christian iconography.
Licinius I (263 – 325) (emperor 308 – 324). For the majority of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis, before being executed on the orders of Constantine I.
Constantine II (316-340) (Caesar in the West 317 – 337, joint emperor with Constantius II and Constans, over Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia 337 – 340) was the eldest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, he was born at Arles and raised as a Christian.
Constans (323 – 350) (Caesar 333-337, joint Augustus over Italy and Africa with Constantine II and Constantius II 337 – 340, co-Augustus with Constantius II 340-350). Anger in the army over his personal life and preference for his barbarian bodyguards led the general Magnentius to rebel, resulting in the assassination of Constans in 350.
Constantius II (317 – 361) (Caesar 324 – 337, joint Augustus over Asian provinces & Egypt with Constantine II and Constans 337 – 340, co-Augustus with Constans 340-350, sole Augustus of the Roman Empire 350-361). Constantius defeated Magnentius at the battles of Mursa Major and Mons Seleucus. Magnentius committed suicide after the latter, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire.
Julian the Apostate (331 - 363)
Dynasty: Constantinian
Reign: 360 - 363
Born: Constantinople
Father: Julius Constantius
Mother: Basilina
Wife: Fausta
Died: in battle against Persians.
The Emperor Constantius II purged his relatives after the death of Constantine in 337, leaving only Julian and his brother Gallus alive. They were exiled to Macellum in Cappadocia for 6 years. Julian completed his education in Ephesus and Athens, where he was influenced to Neo-platonism. Successful general as a Caesar in Gaul and was proclaimed Augustus by his troops. On route to confront Constantius, the Emperor died and Julian became sole Emperor. Openly professed his paganism and proclaimed complete religious toleration.
He wrote "Misopogon" ("Against the Beard"). He travelled to Antioch to begin campaign against Persia and was killed, possibly by a Christian soldier in his own army, during battle against the Persians. He was vilified after his death by Christianity.
Jovian (331 – 364) (emperor 363-364) battlefield replacement for Julian he sought peace with the Persians on humiliating terms and reestablished Christianity as the state church. His reign only lasted eight months.
Valentinian I the Great (321 – 375) (Western Roman Emperor 364 – 375). Upon becoming emperor he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west. Most notable was his victory over the Alamanni in 367 at the Battle of Solicinium. His general Count Theodosius defeated a revolt in Africa and the Great Conspiracy, a coordinated assault on Roman Britain by Picts, Scots, and Saxons. Valentinian was also the last emperor to conduct campaigns across both the Rhine and Danube rivers.
Valens (328 – 378) (Eastern Roman Emperor 364 – 378). He was given the eastern half of the empire by his brother Valentinian I after the latter's accession to the throne. Valens, sometimes known as the Last True Roman, was defeated and killed in the Battle of Adrianople, which marked the beginning of the collapse of the decaying Western Roman Empire.
Gratian (359 – 383) (Western Roman Emperor 375 – 383) The eldest son of Valentinian I. Upon the death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian's 4 year-old brother Valentinian II was declared emperor by his father's soldiers. In 378, Gratian's generals won a decisive victory over the Lentienses, a branch of the Alamanni, at the Battle of Argentovaria. Gratian subsequently led a campaign across the Rhine, the last emperor to do so, and attacked the Lentienses, forcing the tribe to surrender. That same year, his uncle Valens was killed in the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths – making Gratian essentially ruler of the entire Roman Empire (as Valentinian II was still a young child). He favoured Christianity over traditional Roman religion, refusing the divine attributes of the Emperors and removing the Altar of Victory from the Roman Senate.
Magnus Maximus invaded Gaul with a large army from Britain. Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled to Lyon. There, through the treachery of the governor, Gratian was delivered over to one of the rebel generals, Andragathius, and assassinated on 25 August 383.
Magnus Maximus (335 – 388) (Western Roman Emperor 383 - 388). In 383 as commander of Britain, he usurped the throne against emperor Gratian; and through negotiation with emperor Theodosius I the following year he was made emperor in Britannia and Gaul – while Gratian's brother Valentinian II retained Italy, Pannonia, Hispania, and Africa. In 387 Maximus' ambitions led him to invade Italy, resulting in his defeat by Theodosius I at the Battle of the Save in 388. In Welsh legend he is believed to be Macsen Wledig.
Valentinian II (371 – 392) (Western Roman Emperor 375 – 392) declared emperor by his father's soldiers at the age of 4. As a child, Valentinian II was under the influence of his Arian mother, the Empress Justina, and the imperial court at Milan. When Magnus Maximus invaded Italy in 387 Valentinian II and Justina fled to Theodosius in Thessalonica. Theodosius marched west and defeated Maximus. Theodosius's general, the Frank Arbogast, was appointed guardian of Valentinian. Having unsuccessfully tried to dismiss Arbogast and thus revealing his lack of any actual power, on 15 May 392, Valentinian was found hanged in his residence in Vienne. Murder or suicide?
Flavius Eugenius (394) (Western Roman Emperor 392–394) was elevated after the death of Valentinian II by Arbogast. Meanwhile Theodosius I also promoted his 8-year-old son Honorius to the rank of Augustus of the West in January 393. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogast at the Battle of the Frigidus (Vipava Valley, Slovenia) in September 394. Arbogast committed suicide and Eugenius was executed as a criminal.
Theodosius I the Great (347 – 395) (emperor from 379 to 395) was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire.
In 380, together with Gratian and Valentinian II, Theodosius issued the decree "Cunctos populos", the so-called "Edict of Thessalonica", which declared the Nicene Trinitarian Christianity to be the only legitimate Imperial religion and the only one entitled to call itself Catholic.
In 392 he became sole Emperor and in 393 he issued a comprehensive law that prohibited any public non-Christian religious customs. He is likely to have disbanded the ancient Olympic Games, whose last record of celebration was in 393, though archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date.
Theodosius was threatened with excommunication by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan for the massacre of 7,000 persons at Thessalonica in 390, after the murder of the Roman governor there by rioters. Saint Ambrose told Theodosius to imitate David in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt – Ambrose readmitted the emperor to the Eucharist only after several months of penance.
The Later Western Empire
Flavius Honorius (co-Augustus of Western Roman Empire 393 – 395, sole Augustus of Western Roman Empire 395 – 423). His reign was supported by his principal general, Stilicho, who was successively Honorius's guardian and his father-in-law. Stilicho was arrested and executed after a conspiracy by another minister, Olympius. After his fall Stilicho's federate troops defected en masse to Alaric.
At first Honorius based his capital in Milan, but when the Visigoths under King Alaric I entered Italy in 401 he moved his capital to the coastal city of Ravenna, which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications. After his fall in 408 Stilicho's federate troops defected en masse to Alaric and in 410 Alaric sacked Rome.
Priscus Attalus was twice Roman usurper (in 409 and in 414), against Emperor Honorius, with Visigoth support. He was twice proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths, in an effort to impose their terms on the ineffectual Emperor Honorius, in Ravenna. He held the title of Emperor in Rome, during 409, and later in Burdigala in 414. His two reigns lasted only a few months; the first one ended when Alaric believed it was hampering his negotiations with Honorius, and the second came to an end after he was abandoned by the Visigoths and eventually captured by Honorius' men.
Valentinian III (419 – 455) (Western Roman Emperor 425 - 455) was installed as Emperor of the West in 425 with his mother acting as regent.
Petronius Maximus (396 – 455) (Western Roman Emperor for two and a half months in 455).
Avitus (380/395 – 456/457) (Western Roman Emperor July 455 - October 456).
Majorian (420 – 461) (Western Roman Emperor 457 – 461).
Libius Severus (420 – 465) (Western Roman Emperor 461 -465).
Anthemius (420 – 472) (Western Roman Emperor 467 – 472).
Anicius Olybrius (Western Roman Emperor 472).
Glycerius (420 – after 480) (Western Roman Emperor 473 – 474).
Julius Nepos (430 – 480) (Western Roman Emperor de facto from 474 to 475 and de jure until 480). He was also the ruler of Roman Dalmatia from 468 to 480. Some historians consider Nepos to be the last Western Roman Emperor, while others consider the western line to have ended with Romulus Augustulus in 476.
Romulus Augustus (Western Roman Emperor 475 - 476) was the last of the Western Roman Emperors, and is considered by some the last De facto Roman Emperor. Romulus Augustus was deposed by Odoacer. He is also known by his “nickname” Romulus Augustulus.
The Eastern Empire
Arcadius (377/378 – 408) (co-Augustus Eastern Roman Empire 383 – 395, sole Augustus 395 – 408) was the eldest son of Theodosius I and brother of the Western Emperor Honorius. He was dominated by family and members of his court.
Theodosius II (401 –450) (Eastern Roman Emperor 408 – 450) was the son of Arcadius. His older sister Pulcheria was proclaimed Augusta and acted as regent until 416. He helped Valentinian III defeat the usurper Johannes in the West in 425. Roman Africa fell to the Vandals in 439. Theodosius died in 450 as the result of a riding accident. His sister Pulcheria married the general Marcian, thereby making him Emperor.
Marcian (392 – 457) (Eastern Roman Emperor 450 – 457).
Leo I (401 – 474) (Eastern Roman Emperor 457 – 474).
Leo II (467–474) (Eastern Roman Emperor 474).
Zeno (425–491) (Eastern Roman Emperor 474–475).
Basiliscus (Eastern Roman Emperor 475–476 and 476 – 491).
Anastasius I (430–518) (Eastern Roman Emperor 491–518).
Justin I (450 – 527) (Eastern Roman Emperor 518–527).
Justinian (482 - 565)
Reign: 527 - 565
Born: Tauresium (renamed Justinia Prima)
Father: Septimius Severus
Mother: Julia Domna
Actual name: Petrus Sabbatius
Relation to previous emperor: nephew of Justin
Wife: Theodora
Married to Theodora - she was brought up in the Hippodrome (perhaps an actress/prostitute). "Nika" Revolt (532) - riot began in the Hippodrome of Constantinople when the "Blues" and "Greens" united (on watchword "Nika") against Justinian and a weeklong riot turned into a revolt with Hypatius elected Emperor by the mob (Justinian was a member of the Blue faction). The revolt was suppressed in a bloodbath by Belisarius and Mundo.
Armies led by Belisarius reoccupied North Africa, Italy and part of Spain. He re-codified the laws of the Empire "The Complete Civil Law" and "Codex Justinianus". He was a great church builder, including Hagia Sophia. Strove to achieve religious orthodoxy on strict Christian lines (suppressed "heresies", judaism and paganism - closed the Academies of Athens and Alexandria). The later years of the reign were marked by the first outbreak of bubonic plague, which ravaged the Empire.
His life was written about by Procopius in "The Secret History".
Justinian has sometimes been called the "last Roman".
